The Effects of Self-Regulated Learning Processes on E-Learning Outcomes in Organizational Settings

this paper focuses on employees’ e-learning processes during online job training. A new categorization of self-regulated learning strategies, that is, personal versus social learning strategies, is proposed, and measurement scales are developed. the new measures were tested using data collected from employees in a large company. Our approach provides context-relevant insights into online training providers and employees themselves. the results suggest that learners adopt different self-regulated learning strategies resulting in different e-learning outcomes. Furthermore, the use of self-regulated learning strategies is influenced by individual factors such as virtual competence and goal orientation, and job and contextual factors such as intellectual demand and cooperative norms. the findings can (1) help e-learners obtain better learning outcomes through their active use of varied learning strategies, (2) provide useful information for organizations that are currently using or plan to use e-learning 308 WAN, COMPEAu, AND hAggErty for training, and (3) inform software designers to integrate self-regulated learning strategy support in e-learning system design and development. Key WorDs anD phrases: e-learning, job training, learning outcomes, learning processes, self-regulated learning strategies, social cognitive theory. employee training has beCome an effeCtive Way to enhance organizational productivity. It is even more important today given the fast-changing nature of current work practices. research has shown that 50 percent of all employee skills become outdated within three to five years [67]. the cycle is even shorter for information technology (It) professionals because of the high rate of technology innovation. On the one hand, this phenomenon requires organizations to focus more on building internal capabilities by providing different kinds of job preparation and training. On the other hand, it suggests that a growing number of employees are seeking learning opportunities to regularly upgrade their skills and competencies. Consequently, demand is growing for ongoing research to determine optimal training approaches with real performance impact. unlike traditional courses provided by educational institutions that are focused on fundamental and relatively stable knowledge, corporate training programs must be developed within short time frames because their content quickly becomes outdated. Furthermore, for many large organizations, especially multinationals with constantly growing and changing global workforces, the management of training and learning has become increasingly complex. Difficulties arise due to the wide range of courses, the high volume of course materials, the coordination of training among distributed work locations with the potential for duplicated training services, the need to satisfy varied individual learning requests and competency levels, and above all, the need to contain costs while deriving value from training expenditures. the development of information systems (IS) has contributed immensely to solving workplace training problems. E-learning has emerged as a cost-effective way to deliver training at convenient times to a large number of employees in different locations. E-learning, defined as a virtual learning environment in which learners’ interactions with learning materials, peers, and instructors are mediated through Its, has become the fastest-growing form of education [4]. the American Society for training and Development found that even with the challenges of the recent economic crisis, u.S. organizations spent $134.07 billion on employee learning and development in 2008 [74], and earlier evidence suggested that close to 40 percent of training was delivered using e-learning technologies [73]. E-learning has been extended from its original application in It skill training to common business skill training, including management, leadership, communication, customer service, quality management, and human resource skills. Despite heavy investments in e-learning technologies, however, recent research suggests that organizations have not received the level of benefit from e-learning that was E-lEArNINg OutCOMES IN OrgANIZAtIONAl SEttINgS 309 originally anticipated [62]. One credible explanation has emerged from educational psychology showing that learners are neither motivated nor well prepared for the new e-learning environment [14]. Early IS research on e-learning focused on the technology design aspects of e-learning but has subsequently broadened to include all aspects of e-learning inputs (participant characteristics, technology design, instructional strategies), processes (psychological processes, learning behaviors), and outcomes (learning outcomes) [4, 55, 76]. however, less IS research has focused on the psychological processes users engage in that improve or limit their e-learning outcomes [76]. In this research, we contribute to the understanding of e-learning processes by bridging two bodies of literature, that is, self-regulated learning (Srl) in educational psychology and e-learning in IS research. More specifically, we focus on two research questions: RQ1: How do learners’ different e‐learning processes (e.g., using different SRL strategies) influence their learning outcomes? RQ2: How is a learner’s use of SRL strategies influenced by individual and con‐ textual factors salient within a business context? to address the first question, we extend prior research on Srl and propose a new conceptualization that distinguishes two types of Srl strategies: personal Srl strategies, such as self‐evaluation and goal setting and planning, for managing personally directed forms of learning; and social Srl strategies, such as seeking peer assistance and social comparison, for managing social-oriented forms of learning. Prior research (e.g., [64, 88]) suggests that the use of Srl strategies in general can improve learning outcomes. We propose to explore, describe, and measure a new type of Srl strategy—social Srl strategy—and to determine if it has an equally important influence on learning outcomes as the more widely studied personal Srl strategy. We theorize that both types of Srl strategies are influential during the learning process and expect they have different effects on e-learning outcomes. to examine the role of Srl strategies in e-learning, we situated the new constructs in a nomological network based on prior research [76]. this led to our second research question, which also deals more specifically with e-learning in business organizations. While research conducted in educational institutions can definitely inform business training practices, differences in the business context such as job requirements and competitive pressures may affect e-learning outcomes. From prior research we selected four antecedent factors that we hypothesize to be important influences on individual use of Srl strategies (both personal and our newly proposed social strategies). the first two are individual factors. learners’ goal orientation refers to the individual’s framing of the activity as either a performance or a mastery activity, where the former is associated with flawless performance and the latter is associated with developing capability [28]. Virtual competence, the second factor, reflects the individual’s capability to function in a virtual environment [78]. We also include two contextual factors that are particularly applicable to organizational settings: the intellectual demands of learners’ jobs and the group norms perceived by learners about cooperation among work group members. 310 WAN, COMPEAu, AND hAggErty In summary, this study contributes to e-learning research by focusing on adult learners’ Srl processes in job training contexts. It expands the nomological network of e-learning by identifying and elaborating social Srl strategy as an additional form of Srl strategy that is distinct from personal Srl strategy. We further test how different types of Srl strategies applied by learners during the e-learning process affect three types of e-learning outcomes. Our results suggest that learners using different Srl strategies achieve different learning outcomes and learners’ attributes and contextual factors do matter. theoretical background Social Cognitive theory and Self-regulation learning is the proCess of aCquiring, enhanCing, or moDifying an individual’s knowledge, skills, and values [39]. In this study, we apply social cognitive theory to investigate e-learning processes in organizational settings. Self-regulation is a distinctive feature of social cognitive theory and plays a central role in the theory’s application [56]. It refers to a set of principles and practices by which people monitor their own behaviors and consciously adjust those behaviors in pursuit of personal goals [8]. Srl is thus a proactive way of learning in which people manage their own learning processes. research has shown that self-regulated learners (i.e., individuals who intentionally manage their learning processes) can learn better than non-selfregulated learners in traditional academic and organizational training settings because they view learning as a systematic and controllable process and are willing to take greater responsibility for their learning [30, 64, 88, 92, 93]. the definition of Srl as the degree to which individuals are metacognitively, motivationally, and behaviorally active participants in their own learning process is an integration of previous research on learning strategies, metacognitive monitoring, self-concept perceptions, volitional strategies, and self-control [86, 89]. According to this conceptualization, Srl is a combination of three subprocesses: metacognitive processes, which include planning and organizing during learning; motivational processes, which include self-evaluation and self-consequences at various stages; and behavioral processes, which include selecting, structuring, and even creating social and physical environments that are best for learning [89, 91]. As a psychological process, self-regulation is difficult for researchers to investigate directly. however, the patterns of actions (also termed “strategies”) conducted by selfregulated learners during their learning processes can be observed and summarized. these actions reflect learners’ internal metacognitive and motivational Srl processes and demonstrate their behavioral Srl processes. research on the patterns of these actions can help learners become more self-reliant and effective by decoding their sometimes unconscious learning behaviors. Srl strategies have been identified as effective ways to enhance learning in traditional settings (e.g., [88]); however, only a few studies have been done in e-learning E-lEArNINg OutCOMES IN OrgANIZAtIONAl SEttINgS 311 contexts. For example, a study conducted by Santhanam et al. [64] suggests that selfregulated learners perform better than others in e-learning because e-learning provides more learner control and requires more learner initiative. Another study by gravill and Compeau [30] concludes that the application of Srl strategies is positively related to e-learning outcomes. A New Categorization of Self-regulated learning Strategies: Personal Versus Social Prior studies in both traditional classroom settings and e-learning settings treat Srl strategies as a collection of learning-related activities but do not develop Srl as a multidimensional construct as originally proposed in the theory of self-regulation. Moreover, these studies focus mainly on self-directed learning processes. they either exclude social learning activities from empirical investigations (e.g., [30, 59, 64]) or implicitly include one or two social learning activities in measures that predominantly focus on individuals’ personal learning processes (e.g., [21, 63]). In fact, learning happens more often in dyads, groups, and communities than by individual learners, and the e-learning environment often includes social interaction and negotiation [43, 44]. Prior research suggests that social forms of learning (e.g., interaction with classmates and instructors, participation in class discussion) have a positive influence on e-learning outcomes [1, 7, 10, 49, 80]. learners who are good at conducting social forms of learning can overcome some e-learning drawbacks such as social isolation, and with the help obtained from others, they can learn more effectively than those who engage only in personally directed forms of learning. Findings in both Srl and e-learning research support the argument that learners need to employ specific strategies for managing the social forms of learning that involve not only learners themselves but also their peers, instructors, and colleagues. however, prior studies have not generated a sufficient theoretical grounding to guide future research. hence, we propose a new categorization of Srl strategies that distinguishes between two types of actions: personal SRL strategies, which manage personally directed learning that does not involve social interactions with others, and social SRL strategies, which manage the social forms of learning. Our conceptualization of social Srl strategies represents our extension of the nomological network of e-learning processes. Consistent with the structure identified and empirically validated by Zimmerman and Martinez-Pons [90, 91] on Srl in traditional learning settings, personal Srl strategies include nine subdimensions: self‐evaluation, organizing and transforming information, goal setting and planning, seeking information, keeping records and monitoring, environmental structuring, self‐consequences, rehearsing and memoriz‐ ing, and reviewing. Social Srl strategies may be even more important in e-learning than in traditional classrooms given that e-learners and instructors are physically separated. E-learners face a number of unique challenges such as asynchronicity, text-based discussions, 312 WAN, COMPEAu, AND hAggErty multiple conversations, information overload, and isolation. the social Srl strategies explored in our study can be instrumental in assisting e-learners to cope with such challenges (e.g., [82, 89]). based on prior research on self-regulation and several qualitative studies on learning strategies in e-learning settings, we propose that social Srl strategies include six subdimensions: seeking social assistance (from peers, instructors, managers, and IT professionals), social comparison, and social interaction. Although some studies suggest that the use of Srl strategies in general can enhance e-learning outcomes, they do not explain what factors motivate learners’ use of Srl strategies during the e-learning process (e.g., [64]). In this study, we review potential factors that may influence individuals to use Srl strategies (both personal and social) and select a relevant subset to investigate. research Model and hypotheses Development in this seCtion, We present our researCh moDel, which was developed to test the effects of using personal versus social Srl strategies on cognitive, affective, and skill-based e-learning outcomes. We also investigate the influences of two individual factors (goal orientation and virtual competence) and two contextual factors (intellectual demands of an individual’s current job and the cooperative group norm) on learners’ choices of Srl strategies and describe why we chose these particular factors out of a myriad of influences. According to social cognitive theory [8], people’s learning ability is developed under the influence of the environment, behavior, and cognition. these three factors are reciprocally related, reflecting a complex interplay. Most studies that use social cognitive theory, while acknowledging this richness, focus on unidirectional relationships as a means of teasing out the various effects that occur (e.g., [30, 64, 78]). In our study, we also focus on unidirectional relationships and treat individual and contextual factors as antecedents because they reflect personal traits and the environment’s influence on behaviors. the model is illustrated in Figure 1. learning outcomes can be classified into three groups: cognitive outcomes, affective outcomes, and skill-based outcomes [45, 68]. Cognitive outcomes include acquisition of declarative knowledge and knowledge organization; affective outcomes include learners’ perception of satisfaction, attitude, and appreciation of the learning experience; skill-based outcomes include skill development and compilation [45]. All three kinds of outcomes are essential because every improvement in learning and performance is the result of a combination of all three types of learning outcomes. E-learning outcomes have been commonly measured by an individual’s learning effectiveness (cognitive outcomes) and satisfaction (affective outcomes) [3, 5, 6, 49, 55]. Skill-based outcomes that have been frequently investigated and measured as skill development in organizational training research [23] were largely missing in prior e-learning research due to frequently used school settings. to provide a comprehensive view, we include all three aspects of e-learning training outcomes as dependent variables. E-lEArNINg OutCOMES IN OrgANIZAtIONAl SEttINgS 313 Self-regulated learning Strategies Our model views personal and social Srl strategies as the principal antecedents to learning outcomes. Prior research shows that students who self-regulate their learning processes can achieve better learning outcomes regardless of the nature of the course [92, 93], but the effectiveness of learning depends on their ability to use these strategies in a specific context [66]. hence, the key to success in learning is to ensure that learners intentionally adopt and use Srl strategies to manage and direct their learning activities and adjust their learning responses to new or changing conditions. In e-learning, learners are required to take much more responsibility for initiating and directing their own efforts to acquire knowledge and skills rather than relying on teachers as in traditional classroom learning. learners’ use of Srl strategies can be even more effective in e-learning than in a traditional classroom because of the lower level of program control and absence of factors such as peer pressure and instructors’ close monitoring [35, 85]. therefore, learners’ ability to leverage Srl strategies is extremely important in such a learner-centered environment. Self-regulated learners proactively seek out information when needed and take actions to master knowledge. they make adjustments and find solutions when they encounter obstacles such as difficult learning materials or poor study conditions. they set goals and their own study pace and self-evaluate their performance. We classify these personally directed learning behaviors as “personal Srl strategies.” research has confirmed that personal Srl strategies improve knowledge acquisition and skill development in both traditional classroom and e-learning settings [30, 64]. Moreover, given learners’ perceptions of having more control over the learning process, the use of personal Srl strategies is expected to increase learner satisfaction with e-learning [53, 55]. thus, we propose the following hypothesis: Figure 1. research Model 314 WAN, COMPEAu, AND hAggErty Hypothesis 1: Learners’ use of personal SRL strategies during the e‐learning process is positively associated with learning outcomes in terms of (a) declarative knowledge acquisition, (b) skill development, and (c) learner satisfaction. learning rarely occurs in isolation; it is a personal process but is shaped by the context in which one lives. When learners interact with others, they are likely to be challenged by ideas that are inconsistent with their existing knowledge or beliefs. During discussions and debates with peers or instructors, learners actively engage in cognitive restructuring, which potentially leads to improvement or revision of their mental models [48]. In this way, social forms of learning help learners achieve better cognitive and skill-based learning outcomes. E-learners who use teachers and peers as social resources achieve better results as indicated by their perceived learning, knowledge acquisition, exam scores, task performance, or skill development [1, 10, 49, 80]. Prior research also shows that social support and social interaction among learners can increase learner satisfaction by reducing the feeling of isolation [49, 80]. In this way, e-learners who use social Srl strategies to manage their social resources and initiate social learning activities such as seeking social support will be more satisfied with e-learning. thus, we hypothesize the following: Hypothesis 2: Learners’ use of social SRL strategies during the e‐learning pro‐ cess is positively associated with learning outcomes in terms of (a) declarative knowledge acquisition, (b) skill development, and (c) learner satisfaction.